Daily Updates
Week Nine: 18 November
18 November. John Muller Reporting
The Arch of Constantine (figs. 1-3) is the greatest surviving Constantinian monument in Rome. It showcases the young emperor's ambitions for the future, the decay of Rome as a physical plant during the 3rd century, and the new direction of Roman and early Christian art. Dedicated 25 July AD 315, the arch commemorates Constantine's decennalia and his victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge on 28 October 312 (see inscription, fig. 4). Constantine reigned from 306-337, rising in a power struggle that destroyed Diocletian's tetrarchy. His victory over Maxentius gave Constantine sole control over Rome; by 324 he had established himself as the empire's sole ruler.
A triple-bay arch about 21 meters high and 25.6 meters wide, the Arch of Constantine spans the beginning of the Via Triumphalis and resembles the Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum. The arch was constructed with recycled marble and decorated with a mixture of Constantinian artwork and spolia from earlier monuments of Trajan, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. The presence of spolia on the arch calls into question the state of repair of Rome at the start of the 4th century; such obvious expropriations were relatively uncommon before Constantine's reign, when the incorporation of old artwork became increasingly popular especially in Constantinople.
The content and origins of the spolia chosen are also of importance. Constantine casts himself as a new savior of Rome in the Augustan sense, connecting himself with popular emperors predating the 3rd century crisis. In the panels of the Great Trajanic Frieze within the primary bay (figs. 5-6), an emperor with his head recut as Constantine charges into battle on horseback in one scene and is crowned by Victory in another; the inscriptions liberator urbis (liberator of the city) and fundator quietis (founder of calm) accompany. Above, four roundels probably of Hadrianic origins adorn each side of the arch in pairs that show Constantine and his co-emperor Licinius in scenes of hunting and sacrifice. Along the attic level, reliefs most likely from a lost monument to Marcus Aurelius (fig. 7) show the emperor in scenes of civic and military leadership.
A distinct stylistic shift is evident in the panels of the Constantinian Frieze that circle the arch. The panels chronicle Constantine's victory over Maxentius and subsequent entry into Rome. The scenes are relatively static and feature stubby, unrealistic and hardly differentiated figures often described as part of a "breakdown" in the classical tradition. However, the pedestals (fig. 8), spandrels and a pair of roundels built by Constantinian craftsmen suggest that contemporary artisans remained somewhat capable of imitating old forms. The new style was more likely part of a conscious choice. In the depictions of Constantine addressing the Roman people and distributing public largess (figs. 9-10), an early hint of the frontality and iconography of early Christian art is visible. Constantine would have stared out directly to engage the viewer as a near-divine being, while the other figures function as a group looking towards him rather than as individuals.
The conservatism of the ornamentation of the Arch of Constantine is illustrative of the tenuous place of Christianity in Roman society at the start of the 4th century. While the inscription obtusely references Constantine's vision of the cross before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge as a "divine inspiration," none of the reliefs are overtly Christian. The monument therefore appealed to the new Christian converts in Rome as well as the pagan majority.
Sources
Brillant, Richard. Roman Art from the Republic to Constantine. London: Readers Union, 1974.
Cary, M. and H.H. Scullard. A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997.
Claridge, Amanda. Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Elsner, Jas. Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Kleiner, Diana E. Roman Sculpture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992.
Wheeler, Mortimer. Roman Art and Architecture. New York and Washington: Frederick A. Praeger Publishers, 1965.
Figure 1. Plan of the Arch of Constantine after Amanda Claridge, Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), figure 130. Both pairs of long sides and short sides are identical in organization.
Key: Spolia: 1-3: Panels of the Great Trajanic Frieze 4: Dacian prisoners (Trajanic) 5-8: Hadrianic Roundels 9-12: Reliefs of Marcus Aurelius Constantinian Construction: A: Dedicatory inscription B, C, D: Constantinian Frieze. Beginning from the west side and moving south, the scenes show Constantine's departure from Milan (B), the siege of Verona (C), the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (D), Constantine's entrance into Rome (B), Constantine's address to the Roman people at the Rostra (D) and his distribution of the public largesse (B). E: Secondary Spandrels: River Gods F: Primary Spandrels: Victory accompanied by personifications of the seasons G: Pedestals: Victory with kneeling prisoners, Roman soldiers and captive families H: Roundels: Luna (west) and Sol Invictus (east)
Figure 2. South side of the Arch of Constantine. The triple-bay arch features four ornamental Corinthian columns en ressault. Above each column stands a Dacian prisoner probably originally placed in a Trajanic Monument. The siege of Verona is visible in the panel of the Constantinian Frieze above the left bay and the Battle of the Milvian Bridge is above the right bay. The Colosseum is at right.
Figure 3. North side of the Arch of Constantine. The giallo antico marble used in the four columns is apparent, as is the purple porphyry (now restored) surrounding the two Hadrianic Roundels at right. Constantine's address from the Rostra is at left; his distribution of the public largess is at right.
Figure 4. Inscription on the attic of both sides (in this case the south) of the Arch of Constantine. The inscription reads: IMP(eratori) CAES(ari) FL(avio) CONSTANTINO MAXIMO / P(io) F(elici) AUGUSTO S(enatus) P(opulus) Q(ue) R(omanus) / QUOD INSTINCTU DIVINITATIS MENTIS / MAGNITUDINE CUM EXERCITU SUO / TAM DE TYRANNO QUAM DE OMNI EIUS / FACTIONE UNO TEMPORE IUSTIS / REM PUBLICAM ULTUS EST ARMIS / ARCUM TRIUMPHIS INSIGNEM DICAVIT: "To the emperor Flavius Constantine, the Great, / pious and fortunate, the Senate and People of Rome, / because by divine inspiration and his own great spirit / with his army / on both the tyrant and all his faction / at once in rightful / battle he avenged the State, / dedicated this arch as a mark of triumph." Translation from Claridge, 272.
Figure 5. Portion of the Great Trajanic Frieze on the Palatine side of the primary bay of the Arch of Constantine (marked 1 in Figure 1). An emperor with his head recut as Constantine charges into battle on horseback; he tramples one adversary while another begs for mercy. Soldiers behind the emperor hold the standards. On the right side of the relief, Roman soldiers trample their enemies and display enemy heads to the emperor in a manner reminiscent of reliefs on Trajan's Column. Above, the inscription liberator urbis (liberator of the city). The relief is the largest such work in the Roman world.
Figure 6. Portion of the Great Trajanic Frieze on the Colosseum side of the primary bay of the Arch of Constantine (marked 2 in Figure 1). On the right side, the emperor is crowned by victory in Rome while civilians, soldiers and a representation of the goddess Virtus look on. Roman soldiers trample Dacian soldiers on the right side. Above, the inscription reads fundator quietis (founder of calm).
Figure 7. Panels of the Reliefs of Marcus Aurelius on the southwest side of the attic (marked 9 and 10 in Figure 1). On the left, the emperor introduces a vassal to his soldiers, signifying a peace agreement. On the right, the emperor is shown surveying prisoners. Note the realism of the depictions. Fine draperies and clothing betray human forms beneath, while the figures in the scene are clearly differentiable and in different positions.
Figure 8. Pedestal on the northwest side. Victory is shown with a kneeling prisoner at her right knee. On the right, Roman soldiers look at a prisoner with his hands tied. While the figures are less beautifully proportioned and realistic than those on the Reliefs of Marcus Aurelius, an effort to portray drapery and movement is shown.
Figure 9. Constantine's address from the Rostra on the northeast panel of the Constantinian Frieze. The emperor, with his head now missing, faces the viewer from the Rostra. The background reveals his location: the Basilica Julia, the Arch of Tiberius and the Arch of Septimius Severus of the Roman Forum are all shown. Five columns in the background show the genii of the four tetrachs flanking a statue of Jupiter directly behind Constantine. Senators flanked by two seated statues, possibly of Marcus Aurelius and Hadrian (see Kleiner, 450), surround Constantine and face him. Below, the Roman populace looks on. The centrality of the image of Constantine, who would have stared out of the scene to engage the viewer and has a near-divine aspect, is reminiscent of early Christian art.
Figure 10. Constantine's distribution of the public largesse. Constantine is again shown centrally, this time seated on a throne. His head is again lost, but the figure is oriented to look out of the scene and engage the viewer. The supposed "breakdown" of the classical tradition is quite apparent. The senators and Roman people that surround the emperor function more as a group than as individuals. The drapery on the figures does not reveal a human form beneath; instead they look almost like dolls. Above, two Hadrianic Roundels surrounded by purple porphyry veneer portray Constantine victorious over a lion and Licinius making a sacrifice to Hercules.